Challenges Faced by African Archivists in Digitizing Traditional Cultural Expressions

Information professionals are now embracing digitization in the management of information. The likes of digital libraries and digital archives are becoming popular these days due to their wider accessibility and a number of other advantages. In this paper, the author is going to identify challenges faced by African archivists in the drive to digitize traditional cultural expressions.

The author is going to first define the following terms, traditional cultural expressions and digitization. Wendland [2007] states that traditional cultural expressions or folklores of conversation are tangible and intangible forms in which traditional knowledge and culture are expressed communicated and manifested, for example, traditional songs and dances, performances, crafts, names among others. On the other hand Lee S.D.[2001:3] defines digitization as “the conversion of an analog signal or code into a digital signal or code.” He also said digitization means the conversion of any analog material into electronic storage, including sound and video.

Traditional cultural expressions digitization may pose a challenge to African archivists in the sense that it is owned by the community and that it is created as instruments for religious and cultural expressions. Communities may refuse to allow the digitization of the traditional cultural expressions due to taboos and myths surrounding the cultural expressions. The other hindrance is, traditional cultural expressions are owned by the community, it may be difficult to identify the proper authorities to approach for the approval of the digitization program. Sometimes the digitization of traditional cultural expression may pose a threat to exploitation and piracy by commercial organizations. For example, if a traditional dance is filmed, it is the film makers who now have a copyright and gains economically out of that Traditional Cultural expression whilst the community the community which owns the dance get nothing. As the author mentioned above, that, traditional cultural expressions includes handicrafts, designs, architecture; if these designs are digitized, big companies which had resources may use these handicrafts, designs, architecture to make large sums of money using these designs without paying any royalties to local communities.

There are also legal challenges which can be faced by African archivists in documenting indigenous knowledge. Issues to do with intellectual property rights and copyrights are some of the legal challenges. Eke H.N.[2011] says information professionals need to take precaution on issue to do with copyright.Kuny[2009:8] is quoted in Eke H.N’s article saying-

If libraries do begin to systematically collect digital information on a large scale, the provision of effective access could be questionable. In fact ,copyright could end up preventing libraries from providing open access to digital information they collect. Questions of copyright must be managed so that digital information can be created and distributed throughout ‘digital libraries’ in a manner that is equitable for both information producers and customers. Copyright could become an insurmountable barrier to the development of digital collections

So, to avoid the copyright problems there is need for archivists to agree with copyright owners, that means paying copyright fees and royalties. Since Africa is not all that rich continent institutions may fail to raise the above fees and royalties thereby hampering the digitization of the traditional cultural expression.

Borgholf U.W, et al [2010] cites challenges related to what he call the rendition system. He defines the rendition system as the hardware, systems software and the presentation software. He says the hardware consists of the CPU, memory and bus connection-and also some required and desired addenda like graphics card and a monitor, secondary long-term storage devices such as the hard discs, magnetic tape, optical media etc and input devices. The system software consists of the operating system and the driver system. Borgholf et al [2010] says there is pressure to upgrade the rendition system quite often. The presentation programs and all other components of these systems have to be replaced regularly by new ones; all the time new and ‘better’ devices and variants are being developed. In order to use them new software components are needed, that increases the challenges of digitizing traditional cultural expressions because changes in one component of a rendition system cause changes in other components. As the author had pointed out earlier that Africa do not have funding, so the continual upgrading of the rendition system will be expensive to African archivists.

Costs on their own may pose a challenge to African archivist in their drive to digitize indigenous knowledge. Costs such as the purchase of ICT equipment, scanners, electricity, copyright costs, staff training may be great challenge to the digitization of traditional cultural expression.

The other challenge is that of selection. So much had been written on indigenous knowledge and since the digitization of indigenous knowledge demands huge costs Borgholf U W et al [2010] says archivists may face the selection dilemma. Libraries and archives need precise criteria on what is to be considered valuable and therefore, to be considered. Choosing the best sources, from a number of traditional cultural expressions sources, to digitize is a great challenge to African archivists.

Sigaike D.T. and Nengomasha C.T. Dr [2011] said, for example, the National Archives of Zimbabwe has a depreciated staff establishment which requires further training and exposure to modern digitization technologies. The above authors goes on to say the National Archives of Zimbabwe lacks a digitization policy program which hinders any concerted efforts to see long term digitization programs being implemented by the National Archives of Zimbabwe. Problems identified by Sigauke and Nengomasha [2011] are not only restricted to the National archives of Zimbabwe only but common to most African archives.

Eke H.N[2011] says developing countries may have limited bandwidth available. Poor connectivity has always affected the rate at which files are uploaded. It was noted that poor connectivity has been a big challenge for accessing and downloading information especially large files. The other challenge is the difficulty faced in digitizing other materials and the strenuous work of editing works digitized. Most academic staff supplies their bio-data and scholarly publications in form of CDs. At times, the CD-ROM drives of the computers used for the scanning maybe faulty. Some cases have occurred where the drives could not open, nor read the CDs provided. The scanning also requires considerable editing to conform to the standard set of such materials. The scanning of such materials is a laborious work which hampers the digitization of indigenous knowledge.

The author have cited the legal aspect of the digitization of the indigenous knowledge, copyright protection, lack of funding, poor policing, selection challenges, poor training of archivist as some of the challenges faced by African archivists in the drive to digitize traditional cultural expressions

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Eke H.N.[2011],Digitizing resources for University of Nigeria repository: Process and Challenges,Webology,8[i]Article 85.availlable http://www.webology.org/2011/v8n1/a85.html

Nengomasha & Sigauke Dr,[2011],Challenges and Prospects Facing the Digitization of Historical Records for their Preservatuion Within the National Archives of Zimbabwe,2nd Internation Conference on African Digital Libraries and Archives-University of Witwaters, South Africa

Bargholf U M et al ,[2010],Long-term Preservation of Digital Documents Principles and Practices, Springer, UK

Lee S.D.,2001, Digital Imaging A Practical Handbook, Library Association,London ,UK

Chisita C.T.2011, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ZOU, Harare, Zimbabwe

Lesk M,2005,Understanding Digital Libraries, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, USA

<b>Etiwel Mutero </b>works for the National University of Science and Technology,he holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science from Kwekwe Polytechnic and he is currently studying towards a Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact him on 0773614293 or etiwelm02@gmail.com

The Relevancy of Selection Aids and Internet Resourse Guides in Information Science Management

Since it is impossible and unreasoanable for the selection staff to read and review personally the large number of library materials being introduced each year,the selection staff must rely upon the assistance of professionally prepared selection aids.In this paper, the author is going to differentiate between selection aids and internet resource guides justifying their relevence to information science.
Selection aids are resources that assist a librarian in choosing,especially in the aquisition department,the appropriate collection in the library.Selection aids are usually in print form. The internet resource guides function the same as selection aids but these guides are in electronic form.

Selection aids consists of the following;professional library journals such as book lists,library journals,school library journals and publisher’s weekly.Magazines of general interests such as Time,Newsweek,American Heritage etc.They include journals in specific fields for retrospective purchases such as Public Library Catalog and Children’s Catalog,publisher’s catalogs and fliers.

Internet resource guides may include organisational websites,these sites provide information on the authority and reputation of the work including the coverage.Personal home pages are also internet resource guides.A personal home page is a www page ,or a collection of pages which is maintained by an individual author which relates to his or her personal interests. Personal home pages often include materials relating to a specific subject area. The author may include the types of books published by himself or herself. There are also subject-based www sites which are a collection of pages which have a particular subject focus.

Electronic journals and magazines are used widely as internet guides.Publication such as newspapers,flyers,annual reviews,are now produced only in electronic format.Image based information sources are sources which primarily rely upon the use of images as a source of information,for example,to illustrate work,for presentations,to suppliment other textual materials.Thus promotional materials may be presented in this form which assist the librarian in selecting materials for the library.A book database such as Amazon may be used as a selection aid.These types of databases produce a graphical image of the book,the size and even the cost of the material

Depending on the collection development policies which are used as a guide for selecting appropriate materials for the library,selection aids and internet resource guides are so usefull in selecting the actual materials for the library.

Collection development policies that include analysis of the present collection and long-term plans and goals assist in building a collection that benefits the current and future users of the library.Selection aids assist in choosing the appropriate format of the materials ,whether electronic or print.For example some academic institutions prefer electronic materials than print due to limited storage space.

Sometimes book marketers donate sample copies of the sold books so that library users may assess the relevancy of the book.The books are displayed in the library and the actual acquisition is made only after users recommend them.These sample copies are also selection aids.

Selection aids help the librarian to acquire materials that meet the needs of the collection users,fulfill the organisation’s mission statement and that meet the institution’s budgetory allocation.

If quality,accuracy and relevance is of a great importance in the acquisition of library materials,selection aids and internet resource guides will continue to be relevent in information science.

REFERENCEES

1-COOK,Authoratitive guide to Evaluating Information on the internet,Neal-Schuman Publishers,1999.
2-Vernon,Information Sources in Management and Business 2nd Ed ,Butterworths,1984
3-www.arma.org,information management journal
4-Baca,Introduction to Metadata:Pathways to digital Information,Los Angels,1998
5-Chapman,Digital Imaging for libraries and Archives,Ithica,1996

Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.

Managing Institutional Archives

‘Management” and its synonym “administration” are familiar words to archivists, almost always referring to the application of the principles of archival and records management to particular collections or bodies of records. In this paper, the author is going to discuss with relevant examples the essential elements for managing institutional archives that are also common to the administration of all archives.

Institutional archives are archives that belong to a single body such as a University, hospital, army etcetera. As the author had indicated, the words management and administration are related .Administration according to the Random House Webster’s College Dictionary is the management and direction of a government, business, institution, or the like. Management, by the same source, is “first the act or process of managing.’
The elements that are essential to the management not of institutional archives are; management, which includes leadership, organisational structures, planning human resource management, financial management, managing archival facilities and public relations.
Management includes planning. It is essential that the archives manager possess planning qualities. She/he should have short and long term plans for the institutional archives. Plans encourage institutional integration, that is, the whole institution works towards the same goal. The archives manager should have a vision and use the leadership vision to achieve goals.
The institutional archive should have a good organisational structure. Organisational structure reflects both internal and external institutional relationships and policies such as the archives placement within its parent organisation, its internal hierarchy, and its relationship with auxiliary structures such as advisory boards. It should clearly show the chain of command that means the informal networks had to be discouraged.
Another element is that of human resource management. The archives institution should have a human resource policy. The policy explains the qualification of the archives staff. It showed the job description of all the archives staff. The archives manager should know all issues related to recruitment and selection of staff within good business ethics applied.

It is essential that the archives manager be involved in supervising all the archives staff under him. Supervision involves applying personnel resources to the issues for which a manager’s unit or organisation is responsible. Employees must be informed of the organisations objectives and their duties in relation to these objectives. Performance evaluation is also conducted in order for the archives staff to be motivated in their work endeavours. Standards had to be set so that targets may be set for each staff.
Training and development of staff is also a critical element of the archive management. Employee development programs can encompass extensive training efforts, conference, and seminars. The benefits of career development should be especially attractive to archival institutions, which invest heavily in skills development only after long experience with a collection, its donors, and its researchers. The archives institution should encourage staff to advance themselves through hands on training or through convectional courses.
The archives facilities should be managed efficiently, I speak of the general facility management. The facility should meet the minimum conditions of an ideal archival facility. It should have a constant temperature and humidity. The archives building should be located away from swamps, dumb areas or not located near known natural hazards. The building should be well light and that protection from unlawful entry must be there. It should be located near the archives clientele and that fire detectors must be there and fire fighting equipment must be in place and staff trained in fire fighting.
The archives have to be divided into offices, technical services, public services, common areas and record storage areas. Borrowing and reference rules have to be followed. There aught to be a supply of archives needs, such as stationary and storage equipment.
The archives manager should be able to budget for the institution archives. He should be able to plan how the archives institution should get funds for the day to day business of the institution. There could be fundraising activities organised.
Lastly public relations is also an essential element in the management of institutional archives. Public relations refers to the communication or dialogue which a repositionary has with individual or groups inside and outside its institutional setting intended to convey information about services and goals.
Public relation promotes advance the archival image. It also involves dealing with the clientele and marketing of archival services. Poor public relations would result in failing to achieve the archival mission statement.
Planning leadership, organisational structures, human resources management, archives facilities management financial management and public relations are essential elements for managing institutional archives that are also common to the administration of all archives programmes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Wilsted T, Managing Archival and Manuscript Reposition,” . The society of American Archivist, Chicago 1991.
2. Ropar, Managing Archives, IRMT, 1991
3. http://www.findarticales.com
4. http://www.Thefreelibrary.com
5. Dalt.Organisation Theory and design, St Paul Publishers, 1986.Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.

Records Control Measures

Records are an important element in the efficient and effective management of an organization, such that recordkeeping and record control systems must not be looked down upon. In this paper the author is going to discuss the concept of recordkeeping and clearly explain how one would control all the records generated in any organization. Recordkeeping are all the activities involving the reception or creation of records of an individual or organization, the use and storage of that document up until its disposal. The storage of that record should help an organization achieve its mission.The author is going to discuss three basic concepts of record- keeping or records management, that is the concept of lifecycle and the continuum concept

The principle of respect des fonds means respect the creator of records. This principle is broken down into two sub concepts namely, provenance and original order. Provenance means the organization or individual that created or received and maintained and used records while they were still current. Original order means that records have to be maintained in the order which they were created, arranged and maintained by the office origin. The concept of respect des fond means that records of two separate organizations should be managed separately; they must not be combined even if the two organizations were related. Secondly records must not be rearranged but maintained in the order of the creating agency, that is, according to the classification, filing and retrieval methods established by the organization.

The second concept of record keeping is the life cycle concept. The life cycle draws an analogy between the life of a biological organism, which is born, lives and dies, and is then disposed of by destruction or by transfer to an archival institution. Effective management of records through out their life cycle is an issue paramount in the reform of any organization. Without the life-cycle concept vast quantities of inactive records will continue to clog up expensive office space, and it is virtually impossible to retrieve important administrative financial and legal information. Such a situation undermines the accountability of the state and endangers the rights of the citizen.

The record life-cycle concept goes on as follows; The document is created or received by an organization and enters what is called the current phase. Current records are used for the day to day business of an organization and kept in registries or records offices. From the current stage, the record enters the semi ? current phase. In this phase, the record is infrequently used and semi- current records are kept in records centers pending their ultimate disposal by destruction and those of continuing value are sent to the archives centre. The lifecycle concept has been used to promote a sense of order, a systematic approach, to the overall management of recorded information.

The records continuum concept which some say grew out of the life-cycle concept is according to the Australian Standard 4390 “—-a consistent and coherent regime of management process from the time of the creation of records (and before, in the design of record keeping systems) through the presentation and use of records and archives. All stages of records are interrelated forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved to varying degrees, in the ongoing management of recorded information.
Athenhon (1985-45) says a major concern of the continuum concept as a whole must be administration efficiency. It also provides a graphical tool for farming issues about the relationships between records managers and archivists, past, present and future.

RECORDS CONTROL is also important in the management of organizational information. The aim of control is to identify and organize records produced by record keeping systems so that they can be easily accessed, stored and retrieved for appropriate use by authorized persons for as long as they are required. There primary and secondary records controls. Primary level control i.e. where records are controlled at a file and series level. Secondary records control includes records registration, classification, indexing, records trading, appraisal and disposal.

At primary level records are organized into files. A file is the basic intellectual entity that brings together records related to the same function or activity. Files are then organized into series. A series is the level of arrangement of the records of an organization or individual that brings together those relating to the same function or activity or having a common form. Secondary level records control includes registration of records. Mail recording is one example of registration. It includes the use of the incoming mail registers or giving numbers of seculars, memos and bulleting.

Classification is used to aid quick retrieval of records. It is the process of identifying and arranging records and archives in categories according to logically structured conventional methods and procedural rules represented in a classification system.

Indexing is another records control measure which helps identify records according to subject while records tracing is a means of control that records the movement of a record from one office to another, either by the transit slip or any other means.

Finally, records appraisal and disposal assist in cleaning offices of absolute records by identifying useless records and those of archival value and remove them out of offices thereby increasing accessibility of active records.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. United Kingdom. Committee on Department Records. Report. Cmnd. 9163 London,1954
2. Roper, Building Records Appraisal Systems, IRMT 1999.
3. Surplusing, DS.Records Retention Procedures. Denver 1990
4. Arma. Developing and Operating a records Retention Programme,ARMA 198Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.

Developing an Integrated Records Management Program

n an endeavor to make records accessible to both the government and to citizens, researchers and records professionals recommend an integrated records management program. In this paper the author is going to examine the rationale for developing an integrated records management program.

An integrated records management program according to Millar[1999:20] ‘…recognizes that records follow a life-cycle and acknowledges the importance of caring for those records through a continuum of concept.’ The Australian Standard 4390 as quoted from http://www.findarticles.com defines a records continuum as ‘…a consistent and coherent regime of management processes from the time of their creation of records…through to the preservation and use of records as archives.’ This definition suggests an ideal integration for documents, records, and archives management. The continuum concept seeks to break the barrier between records managers and archivists and bring them together to work together from current records to archival stages. Thus it brings uniformity in the care of records.

An integrated records management program is there to ensure the creation and maintenance of authoritative and reliable records in an accessible, intelligible and usable form for as long as they are required to support the business and accountability requirements of an organization. For a record to be authoritative and reliable it must be ‘…fixed and must not be susceptible to change.’ This kind of record protection can be fully achieved where an integrated records management is in place.

On the same issue of maintaining an authoritative and reliable records make me remember the story of the global political agreement GPA which was negotiated and finally signed on the 15th of September 2008.It is said prior to the signing ceremony representatives of the Zimbabwe’s three political parties agreed to a document was supposed to be signed by the party principals, it is said the document was left as a soft copy in the hands of someone. After the signing ceremony some parties claimed that the original document was manipulated. Had the three party negotiators been aware of the integrated records management they should have sought to fix the GPA document as soon as the negotiations were over to avoid any unofficial manipulation.

The integrated records management program ensures efficiency and economy in the management of records through eliminating duplication effort, creating and maintaining only those records that are needed, systematizing retention and disposal, and so on. With integrated records management, policies are in place which details retention periods of records found in records offices, records centers and archives. A periodic appraisal of records ensures that offices do not continue to be crammed and jammed with obsolete records.

‘Appraisals make it possible to dispose of records promptly when their continuity utility for business purposes has expired, whether that disposal is by destruction or by transfer for archival preservation. In order to balance economy with good administration it is necessary that records are neither disposed of too late or too early in their life-cycle.’

Records appraisal and disposal of obsolete ensures efficiency in retrieval of records since records offices will only retain few current records of an organization. In addition to that, the organization will limit the storage and equipment costs. Improved access to records and archives enhances sound decision making, the effective delivery of government programs and services.

The identification of archives of enduring historical and cultural value is another objective of the integrated records management program. After identification of these archives integrated records management ensures the safe transfer of such archives to an archival institution. It is the integrated records management program that promotes the arrangement of archives in accordance with archival principles so as to preserve their contextual information. Without an integrated records management these archives may be mistakenly be destroyed or they may continue to occupy office space instead of them being transferred to an archival institution.

The integrated records management seeks to promote the preservation of records and archives. Preservation is the positive protection of archival materials in which no physical or chemical treatment to the item occurs, it is the totality of process and operations involved in the protection of records against damage and deterioration. A preservation management program is the best and most cost effective way to protect records and archives. The preservation plan will assist even in the selection of good quality equipment in offices or repositories which will result in good services which will not assist the users but also minimizes the damage done to records and archives as a result of their use.

In conclusion, the integrated records management Atherton as quoted at http://www.findarticles.com says all stages of records are interrelated, forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved, to varying degrees in the ongoing management of recorded information. The continuum model which is all about integrated records management provides a graphical tool for framing issues about relationships between records managers and archivists, past, present, and future, and for thinking strategically about working collaboratively and building partnerships with other stakeholders.

Bibliography
[1] Artherton ?www.findarticles.com
[2]Miller L.-Management of Public Sector Records Principles 1999 ,IRMT
3 Wallace P. ‘Records Management’ 1980
4 Penn ‘Records Management Handbook’ 1978
5 Bloomfield,P. ‘Records Management 8’ 1983

Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.

The Role Communication in Peace Building

This article defines the word communication and explains how communication can help achieve peace and stability in the world.The article explains how communication especially the print and electronic media help in creating and exchanging meanings,and show that there is intereletionships between media and conflict.It goes on to say the media can be a good peace builder if rightly used.A full text of this article is 1366 words and 6 pages long.

The Role of Communication in Peace Building

The world is bedeviled with conflicts. Analysts indicate that there seem to be an increase in these conflicts over the last hundred years. The million dollar question is, how can these conflicts be resolved? In this paper the author is going to explain the role of communication in peace building.

To start with, the word communication can be defined as ”…the creation and exchange of meaning” Dimbleby [1992]. Show J.W. 1992 defines communication as ”…a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed”. However Martins gives what the author consider as a better communication definition. He says; ”communication is a transactional, symbolic process which allows people to relate to and manage their environment by establishing human contact, exchange information, reinforcing the attitudes and behavior of others, and changing the attitudes and behavior of others” Martins [1980:8]

It is true that communication can be used as a medium of peace building. Since communication in all its forms can be used to create and exchange meaning, it can be used to achieve peace through peace talks and negotiations. Although other forms of communication can be exploited to achieve peace in societies, the mass media and the Information Communication Technology [ICT] had been proved to be significant instrument of peace building.

The mass media communication is defined as a process of mediated communication between an institutional source and a large, diverse, dispersed audience via a mechanical device. Examples of the mass media are newspapers, radio broadcasts and the television.

A thematic assessment published by ”The Institute for the studies on Free Flow of Information” July [2004] indicate that there are interrelationships between media and conflict.
”The media is a double edged sword. It can be a frightful weapon of
violence when it propagates messages of intolerance or disinformation t
that manipulates public sentiment…but there is another aspect to the
media . It can be an instrument of conflict resolution, when the
information it represents is reliable, respects human rights, and
represents diverse views. It”s the kind of media that enables a society
to make well informed choices, which is a precursor of democratic
governance. It is a media that reduced conflict and foster human
security.”
From the above quote it is clear that the media can reinforce and even change the attitudes of the masses. If the media talks issues of inclusiveness, unity and tolerance it becomes a useful tool in conflict resolution. However if it reports propaganda and the media is one sided that same media may also fuel tensions and provoke conflicts. A media which is controlled by personnel who apply professional ethics combined with diverse access to information can contribute to societal reconciliation, alter misperceptions and broaden understanding of the causes and consequences of conflict.

There are structural considerations for the media to be an effective peace builder such as policy and the media environment. The degree to which policy and legislation provides a space within which the media can operate, and the degree to which judiciary can regulate are crucial. The assessment I had mentioned before says if the legislation is used to silence the media or the courts are easily influenced and corrupted, then its function as the ”fourth estate” and its role in conflict prevention and resolution will be significantly hindered.

The issue of structure makes me recall peace building in Zimbabwe. It is no secret that we are striving for peace and national healing. With few newspapers and only two government controlled daily newspapers, radio and television ,our media is not diverse and not independent which means our media will not at all promote peace and reconciliation but help to fuel tensions and conflict.

However, this is not to say the media policy environment must be too loose or self-regulatory. A too loose policy may allow rogue media, whose aim is to disseminate hate speech and provoke conflict. Such kind of media may spawn views and dogmas that are favorable only to their religious sects, tribes, races or their political parties at the expense of others.

A media with wide coverage and accessible is effective in influencing the masses. There need to be a variety of information flow.

”Homogeneous and heterogeneous media communities-the religious ethnic and political composition of the media community can be
instrumental in defining its orientation and possible vulnerability to
bias. Without diversity there is risk that the media will fail to reflect
the needs of the other.” [2004]Thematic Assessment

The media should not keep on talking about historical conflicts telling people that current possible conflicts are unavoidable but it should talk words of tolerance and peace, in its contents the media should create an image that the outbreak of conflict can be amicably resolved and the return to peace is a number one priority of the society.

The Information and Communication Technology can also be a huge aid in the effort to build lasting peace by helping people communicate, view information that help make decisions and understand each other.

Peace is not created with a one time act hence communication through the ICTs is of paramount importance. True peace is built over time with many different processes and approaches that move parties into lasting, peaceful relationships. Activities includes arbitration, mediation, negotiations, reconciliation, conflict prevention, post conflict reconstruction, monitoring and advocacy etcetera. ICTs ?hardware and software helps people communicate, understand data, and learn, via tools such as computers, the internet, mobile phones, and more can be a tremendous help in implementing these peace building methods.

Cole and crowford [2007] in their article titled ”Building Peace Through Information and communications Technologies” says in the Philippines, large scale demonstrations organized via cell phones and SMS were a major factor in forcing President Joseph Estrada to resign, thus bringing change without large-scale violence. The US Army is piloting a hand held system that contains maps and descriptions of civilian and militia inhabitant to help them gain a deeper understanding of the communities they are serving as peacekeepers.

In general ,Information and Communication Technologies can be used in peacemaking efforts in six different ways; to provide information, to help people process information, to improve decision making, to reduce scarcity, to support relationships and to help people understand each other.

The internet increases chances of information sharing, mobile technologies such as cell phones can dramatically increase the flow of information .For example the UmNyango Project in SA uses a SMS to allow those with cell phones to access information and report violations against women and children. Email discussion lists and forums can connect communities and encourage ongoing discussions over the internet. With a skilled facilitator and communication guidelines the internet relay chat can be a very effective method to allow groups to anonymously conduct negotiations or discuss sensitive issues.

The online Dispute Resolution Tools frame arguments and help participants to resolve conflicts peacefully using online debates, negotiation and mediation tools. For instance, the virtual command centers can allow many people spread across different continents to look at the same information. This can help in building peace across continents.

ICTs can be a tremendous help to those trying to maintain or form new relationships. The ability to communicate through the written word, photos, sound clips, and web cameras can keep people connected regardless of how far apart they are geographically.

ICTs can help people understand each other even people of different cultural backgrounds and go a long way in reducing conflicts. Through the ICTs translation software can help people plunge into deeper understanding.

While it”s true that media and technologies can”t create peace, but they can contribute to an environment where people can more easily communicate, understand current situations, visualize the implications of their actions, and understand each other”s point of view. Thus, communication can help peace building efforts.

]

Bibliography
1 Cole And Crawford ”Building Peace Through Information And Communication Technology [2007]
2 The Institute for the Studies on the Free Flow of information [2004]
3 Martins ”Communication, principles, concepts and skills” [1980]
4 Vengesai ”Introduction to communication” ZOU Module

Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Records Preservation Measures

This article defines the word preservation and explain components that are critical in the implementation of the preservation plan.Components identified and explained in this article are;getting top management support,conducting a conservation assessment,establishing preservation standards,setting priorities and choosing the suitable preservation solution.A full text of this article is 1575 words and 7 pages long

Preservation is essential to records management in order to prevent information loss due to the deterioration of the records media. Roper [1999:37] says, “Preservation planning is essential to good records and archives management. It is better to focus on preventative preservation measures and ensure adequate environmental and physical controls than to focus on conservation treatments for one object to the exclusion of others in the institution. Preservation policies and plans need to be coordinated with other organizational requirements. ” In this article the author is going to discuss the components that are critically important in the implementation of an effective preservation planning of an archive institution.

Preservation may be viewed as the totality of processes and operations involved in the protection of records and archives against damage or deterioration. Roper [1999:36] defines preservation as “…the passive protection of archival material in which no physical or chemical treatment to the item occurs.”

Preservation planning is a process by which general and specific collections care needs are determined, priorities established and resources for implementation are identified. The main purpose is to outline a path or define a course of action that will allow you to set present and future preservation agendas. It identifies the actions an institution will take and those it will never take so that resources can be allocated appropriately. The steps that are more important in the implementation of a preservation program are; winning the support of the organizational top management, conducting a preservation survey, setting up goals and standards, assessment of preservation needs and the selection of documents, identifying priorities, choosing the appropriate preservation solution and setting up a disaster preparedness plan.

When setting up a preservation program, it is important to ensure that “stakeholders” are on board. Planning takes time and sometimes money. Try to sell the need for such planning to the organizational top management. The records manager or archivist should be able to sell the idea quiet convincingly, he/she should present the preservation plan as a good plan that will make business operations more efficient, effective and economical, plus its an ethical approach to the responsibility of managing a collection.

After getting management support the next step is to conduct a preservation survey. The preservation survey ensures that you have got a good grasp of the size and nature of the collection. In studying the nature of the collections, questions such as the following will be answered. What subjects are collected? Why are they collected? What are the components of the collection? What formats of material do they contain? Etcetera . Roper (1999:5) says:
“Such a survey is important because it is not possible to provide complete conservation treatments for all materials in an archival institution. Copying and repair of archival materials is expensive. One of the questions that must be considered is what should be preserved. The establishment of standards helps ensure the materials used to create records and archives are of the best quality possible…. It is important to recognize that decisions will have to be made about what to spend resources on and what will receive more passive care.

The preservation survey goes on to examine the records building and the storage conditions and materials. Bajpai 1999:206 argues that “The general condition of the building as a whole is the starting point. The concern is not so much to discover serious structural or material defects, but rather to assess the general suitability of the building for its purpose. The materials that are used-wood, brick or stone, for example will affect weather proofing and heat insulation. A flat roof can lead to difficulties with water seepage in heavy rain. Unfitting doors and windows can admit both water and animal life”

The survey should also look at issues of environmental conditions of the conditions of the storage areas. It is necessary to know the humidity and temperature of storage areas. The preservation survey will note by what systems the building is heated, cooled and ventilated, how the systems are actually used, and how effective they are. The overall cleanliness, maintenance, storage and exhibition furniture, pest monitoring, access and retrieval practices should also be put into account.

The next step after the preservation survey is the setting up of goals and standards. Very serious problems revolve around standards. One should not underestimate the problem of creating standards targets. Standards helps use choose the right storage media to use, the type of paper, type of microfilm or types electronic media to use to store records. There are national and international standards such as those published by the International Council on Archives (ICA) Budd 2000;57 states “the conformity of foreign and domestic standards when crating preservation masters will be of paramount importance since state vaults will require adherence to domestic specifications of the storage of (records)”

The next step in the preservation planning is the assessment of the preservation needs and the selection of documents. Roper 1999;51 writes that “Indeed some materials may not require any more complex treatment” That”s the conservation assessment may be carried out using a questionnaire and Roper [1999;51] continues to say, “completed questionnaires will assist for projecting funding requirements for replacement, repair and copying over the long term”

There are tools that enable us to assess both the condition of a records building and physical conditions of its serials. Periodic diagnostic check of the completeness of its serial files should be carried out. Lists of missing and damaged issues are then compiled to complete the sets. In connection with this activity, lists are prepared enumerating titles for potential binding or microfilming. Section of materials for preservation is done with the help of staff working with records such as records clerks, registry clerks and supervisors.

Once various materials have been assessed, it is possible to establish conservation priorities. These priorities will relate not only to the physical state of the materials but also to its relative importance to the archival institution, its age, legal values and other concerns. Roper (1999:40) says some of the questions that may need to be answered when establishing the priorities are as follows: what are the general conditions of the records and archives? Are the items badly damaged or deteriorating? Will the items be heavily used? Are there signs of mould, insects, rodents, or acidic damage? Etceteras.

From establish the preservation priorities we move on to choosing the appropriate preservation solution. The nature and the degree of damage on a record help a records manager or an archivist to apply the necessary preservative and conservative measures. Roper (1999:57) says “As the preservation evaluation questionnaires indicates, there are a wide variety of possible actions that can be fallen to preserve records and archives. Some actions require minimal effort and expense, such as replacement through purchase or photocopying. Other actions demand considerable resources, such as extensive treatment of originals or microfilming”

The last aspect in the preservation planning is an emergency planning. Emergency plans are policies and procedures developed by an organization to be used during an emergency or disaster to prevent or minimse damage to an organization, its people and its resources.

Miller 1999:5 says should be able to assess the risk factors of an organization “what hazards could endanger an institutions records and archives? How much damage could be done in the event of a disaster? All organizations should identify and assess possible risks to buildings, facilities and records”

Types of emergencies could be natural, environmental, political, incited or technology related such as a malfunctioning of hardware and/or software, viruses from damage or corrupted computer files electromagnetic interference, power failures and/or fluctuations, theft of computer hardware/
software.

Millers (1999:21) say “Regardless of the long-term required or the level of emergency planning underway, it is possible to take steps to prevent a potential emergency from becoming a disaster. A number of changes can be instituted to protect records, ensuring their safety on a day to day basis as well as in the event of unforeseen circumstances. Each institution will have to determine the best course of action to take, depending on its resources, needs and potential risks. The common actions involve protecting records from damage caused by water, fire, hazards such as armed conflicts and abuse or mishandling”

Preservation is therefore a crucial element in the whole operation of a records program. As Roper puts it, “The aim of archival preservation is to prolong the usable life of useful research information in two ways”. If the necessary steps in preservation planning are followed, the records of an organization will be adequately preserved and their life prolonged.

References

1 Miller L, Preservation Records, uk, IRMT 1999
2 Miller L, Emergency Planning For Records and Archives Services, Uk, IRMT 1999
3 Saur K,G. Managing and Preservation of Periodicals and Newspapers
4 Mahapatra P.K., Preservation in Libraries Perspectives Principles and Practice,New New Delhi, Ess Ess Publications 1999.
5 Bajpai S.K,Preservation and Management of Library Collections,New Delhi,Ess Ess Publication 1999.

Bibliography

1 Ritzeenthaler, Preserving Archives and Manuscripts, Chicago, Society of American Archivists,1993.
2Miller L,Preserving Records,UK,IRMT,1999.
3 Harvey,Preservation in Libraries,Austr,1993
4 Miller L, Emergency planning for records,UK,IRMT,1999.
5 Saur K,G,Managing the Preservation of Periodicals and Newspapers,Netherlands,IFLA,2000
Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook

Benefits of Cross-Cultural Communication

This article defines cross-cultural communication and explaines the its benefits to organisations.A full text of this article is 1049 and 7 pages long.

Formal organizations are becoming bigger and bigger. Organizations that used to trade in a single cultural society are now spreading their wings internationally thereby demanding that they study the science of cross-cultural communication. In this paper the author is going to discuss the importance of cross-cultural communication in formal organizations.

Cross-cultural communication by definition is “A form of communication between people from different culture; both an interactive process whereby we refer back to our culture when in contact with another, and a source of misunderstanding stemming from the different meanings given to a particular massage, be it verbal or non-verbal”-www.akteos.com According to http://www.wikipedia.org cross-cultural communication “…is a field of study that looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures” http://www.wikipedia.org

Cultural influences are an inherent aspect of all communications. The term ‘culture’ refers to the sum of language, values, beliefs, habits and practices shared by a large group of people. These characteristics comprise the cultural context of communication. Cultures sometimes correspond with political boundaries of nations, but this is not always the case. For instance, countries like the USA and Soviet Union are pluralistic societies, meaning more than one culture exist within their boarders. That means organization working in these territories need to use cross-cultural communication.

According to Vengesai [1993:52] the biggest cross-cultural communication method used by organizations is advertising. It has been proven that organizations that advertise maximize their profits due to the promotion and broadening of their customer basis. Vengesai says advertising is a cross-cultural communication because it originated in western consumer societies where advertising can be seen as information as well as a producer of symbolic meaning. Advertising had the capacity to bring foreign life-style and development to primitive and underdeveloped societies by changing people’s beliefs, norms, inclinations and attitudes. Golding [1974:43] suggest ‘…that static societies are brought to life by outside influences, technical aid, knowledge, resources and by diffusion of ideas.’

Cross-cultural communication encourages international team working which is a key to the promotion of the principles of formal organizations. For example, it promotes the sharing of information and experiences as well as assisting in the dissemination of methodologies adopted by the organizations. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of cross-cultural teams had been found to encourage innovation

Cross-cultural communication benefits formal organization in sharing common goals. It ensures that everyone remain focused on the same goals and objectives keeping up- to-date. Encouraging individuals to collaborate internationally, rather than working only within their home country, helps the organization ensures that all of its members are sharing knowledge. Access to this wide range of information helps everyone to keep their work up-to-date and of high quality.

Members in a formal organization benefit experience from others through cross-cultural communication. Chen[2006] says:
There are potentially many sources of diversity in teams
[Milliken/Martins1996] but one of the clearest distinguishing features
of global teams is that team members are drawn from different
countries and will often speak different languages…One of the most
common reasons for global teams is to leverage the knowledge and
skills of diverse team members [Lagerstrom/Anderson2003].In skilled
tasks, a team with diverse skills will generally outperform teams that
lack certain skills or are unable to coordinate them successfully. For
instance in decision making, research suggests that diversity in
membership increases the number of solutions offered and alternatives
considered. Chen S. Management International Review Dec 2006

Members in a formal organization help each other to avoid duplication and maximize economy of effort. Having people from different backgrounds working together on projects and reviewing each other’s work helps to minimize bias.

Research shows that heterogeneous groups are more creative than homogenous groups. Heterogeneous groups tend to consider issues from a broader range of perspectives than homogeneous groups and so generate wider range of ideas. Hence cross-cultural communication promotes greater creativity in organizations.

Cross-cultural communication promotes continuous improvement. Heterogeneous groups often question each other more than homogenous groups; frequent challenge of the status quo helps to ensure that opportunities for improvement are always considered.

Cross-cultural communication is not only important to an organization but to its clients as well. Research has shown that cross-cultural communication promotes team working and helps to increase the flexibility and responsiveness of the organization. International teams should help to ensure that the organization is focusing on the most appropriate products at an international level, and that appropriate considerations are given to local needs and requirements. They also help to ensure that these products are addressed and presented in a way that is relevant to people-thus cross-cultural communication make organizations improves greater relevance of its products to its clients.

Cross-cultural communication or international team working promotes the work of an organization at an international level that has a direct impact on dissemination of the organization’s output. Not only is it likely to influence availability of information, it is also likely to impact on the way in which information is presented. In short, cross-cultural communication promotes access to organization information.

Despite the benefits of cross-cultural communication people of different cultural backgrounds are likely to have different attitudes toward hierarchy etcetera. However, it has been proved that the advantages of cross-cultural communication far outweigh the setbacks. Organizations are developing strategies to counter these setbacks. For example, to counter the lack of a common language between societies, a lingua franca is used as a means of communication between different communities. This is to prove that cross-cultural communication is important in formal organizations.

Bibliography
1- Rosenbaum T. ‘Effective Communication Skills’, Cornell Local Roads Program 2005
2- ‘The Guide to Employee Communication’ Pitman ,1990
3- Kuhudzai ‘Introduction to Communication’ ZOU 1999
4- Fiske,J ‘Introduction to Communication Studies’ London: Rout ledge 1982
5- Holliday, M.A.K ‘Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language & meaning .’ London: Edward 1978

Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honors Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University. You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone 263o773614293

Databases and Database Management Systems

This article differentiates between a database and a database management system.It also gives type of databases used by organisations such as centralised and distributed databases.Hirachichal,relational and the network databases are also explained.The article further explaines the uses of a database management system.A full text of this article is 1024 words 5 pages long.

In managing information, organizations are moving from file management systems to a better and efficient database management system. In this paper the author is going to differentiate between a database and a database management system [DBMS] and fully explain the types of databases used in various organizations.

A database is a collection of organized data with easy access and preserved over a long period, or a collection of interrelated data. Turban[2003:131]defines a database as a ”collection of related files, and where those related files can greatly affect user accessibility, query response times, data entry, security, and cost”. A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files so that a common pool of data records serves as a single central file or database for many data processing applications.

O”brian considers the following points as reasons for database processing. He says databases helps in eliminating data redundancy because independent data files include a lot of duplicated data. Secondly databases integrate data stored in a computer .Data can also be accessed faster from any point within the organization and users can access different portions of databases concurrently.

A database can be centralized or distributed. A centralized database has all the related files in one physical location. A decentralized database has complete copies of a database, in more than one location. There are two types of decentralized databases: replicated and partitioned-Turban [2003:132]. A replicate database has complete copies of the entire database in many locations, primarily to alleviate the single-point-of-failure problems of a centralized database as well as to increase user access responsiveness. A partitioned data base is subdivided, so that each location has a portion of the entire database.

A database management system controls all use of the databases of a computer using organization. It works in conjunction with the data management control programs of the operating system which are primarily concerned with physical input, output, and storage of data during processing.
The software program [or group of programs] as a database
management system [DBMS].The [DBMS] permits an organization to
store data in one location, from which it can be updated and
retrieved, and it provides access to the stored data by various
application programs. The DBMs also provides mechanisms for
maintaining the integrity of stored information, managing security
user access, recovering information when the system fails, and
accessing various database functions from within an application
written in a third generation, fourth generation, or object-oriented
language. The DBMS provides users with tools to add, delete,
maintain, display, print, search, and upgrade data.
Turban [2003:136] Introduction to Information Technology.
A DBMS removes the database from the control of individual programmers and computer users and places responsibility for it in the hands of the database administrator. This improves the integrity and security of the database.

There are three major types of data bases used in different organizations, namely the hierarchical structure, network structure, and the relational structure.

In the hierarchical structure, the relationship between records forms a hierarchy or tree structures. In this structure, all records are dependent and arranged in multi-level structures consisting of one root record and any number of subordinate levels. Thus, all of the relationships between records are one-to-many, since each data element is related to several records below it, but only one data element above it. The data elements or records at the highest level of the hierarchy is called the root and is the point of entry into the hierarchy. Data elements are stored and located by moving progressively downward from a root and along the branches of the tree until the desire record is located.

The advantage of a hierarchical database approach is the speed and efficiency with which it can be searched for data. This speed is possible because so much of the database is eliminated in the search with each ”turn” going down the tree.

The second type of a database is the Network database. This type of a database views all records as sets. Each set is composed of an owner record and one or more member records. The network implements the one-to-many record structure. Unlike hierarchical data structures that require specific entrance points to find records in a hierarchy, network data structure can be entered and traversed more flexible.

The third type of a database is the relational model. It was developed in an attempt to simplify the representation of complex relationships between data elements within the database are viewed as being stored in the form of simple tables. Tables allow quick comparisons by row and column, and items are easy to retrieve by finding the point of intersection of a particular row and column.

In a relational database, these tables are called relations, and the model is based upon the mathematical theory of sets and relations. In this model, each row of data is equivalent to a record, and each column of data is equivalent to a field. In the relational model terminology, a row is called a tuple , and a column is called an attribute. The relational model is currently the most popular of the three common database structures because it provides the most flexibility and ease of use.

A database coupled with the database management system, can eliminate many of the problems associated with traditional file environment. Therefore, data redundancy, data isolation, and data inconsistency are minimized, and data can be shared among all users in the organization.

Bibliography
1 -Turban ”Introduction to information technology 2nd Ed” 2003 John Willey & Sons
2- O”Brien ”Information Science Systems for You” 2003
3-Barata Kimberly, ”Understanding Computers: An Overview for Records and Archives Staff” ” IRMT 1999.
4-White, ”How Computers Work,How it Works Series” Emeryville 1998
5-Parsons ”Computer Concepts” Cambridge 1999

——————————————————————————–Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.

The Records Life-Circle and Continuum Concerpts

This article defines the continuum and the life-cycle concepts.It explains what the continuum concept is all about and gives the benefits of the continuum concept in records management.The benefits includes a partnership between two groups of records professional,the records manager and the archivist,administration efficiency etc.The life-cycle had been explained as concept which give a sense of order among a host of its advantages in records management.A full text of this article has 1480 words and 7 pages long.

Providing coherent and consistent service that meets user’s needs has long been a challenge for records managers and archivists worldwide. It is even more challenging in a digital world. Timely access to accurate, reliable, authentic, complete, and readable records over time is always difficult for both users and custodians. In this paper, the author is going to highlight and explain the two key principles that govern the care of records and archives. The two principles are the records lifecycle concept and the continuum concept

As defined in Australia Standard 4390, a records continuum is ‘…a consistent and coherent regime of management processes from the time of the creation of records [and before creation, in the design of recordkeeping systems] through to the preservation and use of records as archives.’ The International Council on Archives defines the continuum concept as ‘A consistent and coherent process of records management throughout the life of records, from the development of recordkeeping systems through the creation and preservation of records, to their retention and use as archives.’ The above definitions suggest an ideal integration for documents, records and archives management.

According to Atherton [1985], all stages of records are interrelated forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved, to varying degrees, in the ongoing management of recorded information. She explained how the lifecycle stages that records supposedly underwent were infect a series of recurring and reverberating activities within both archives and records management. The underlying unifying or linking factor in the continuum was the service function to the creators and all users.

Xiami Phd says the records continuum as a model was formulated in the 1990s by Australian archival theorist Frank Upward based on four principles. The first is a concept of ‘record’ inclusive of records of continuing value

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stresses their use for transactional, evidentiary, and memory purposes, and unifies approaches to archiving/recordkeeping, whether records are kept for a split second or millennium. The second is, there is a focus on records as logical rather than physical entities, regardless of whether they are in paper or electronic form. The third is the institutionalization of recordkeeping profession’s role requires a particular emphasis on the need to integrate recordkeeping into business and societal processes and purposes. The fourth point is that archival science is the foundation for organized knowledge.

Sue McKlemmish writes ‘the model[continuum concept] provides a graphical tool for framing issues about the relationship between records managers and archivists, past, present and future, and for thinking strategically about working collaboratively and building partnerships with stakeholders’

Atherton says a major concern of the continuum concept as a whole must be administration efficiency. Records are not created to serve the interests of some future archivists or historian, or even to document for posterity some significant decision or operation. They are created and managed to serve immediate operational needs.

Miller says the continuum model is a unified model which reflects the pattern of the continuum. She says four actions continue to recur through the life of a record and cuts across the traditional boundary between records management and archives administration. The actions are the creation or acquisition of records, classification or description, its appraisal for continuing value and its maintenance and use.

The continuum approach means the end of the traditional demarcation between the functions of the records manager and the archivist. The division of activities into records management and archival phases, with the consequent division of responsibility between the records manager and the archivists is seen by some as artificial and restrictive.

Sarah Flynn explains that the records continuum model is significant because it broadens the interpretation of records and recordkeeping systems offered by the lifecycle. Such broadening is helpful, given the variety of context in which archivists and records managers operate and in which archives and records are used.

The continuum model reminds us that records [including archives] are created and maintained for use as a result of business and administration functions and processes, rather than as ends in themselves.

The continuum model emphasizes cooperation beyond the walls of repositories, especially between closely related, if occasionally estranged, professions of archives administration and records management-a cooperation that is more important than ever in the contemporary climate of outsourcing and cross- sectoral working.

On the other hand the lifecycle is a concept that draws an analogy between the life of a biological organism, which is born, lives and dies, and that of a record, which is created, is used for so long as it has continuing value and is then disposed of by destruction or by transfer to an archival institution.

Miller says the effective management of records throughout their lifecycle is a key issue in civil service reform. Without the lifecycle concept, vast quantities of inactive records clog up expensive office space, and it is virtually impossible to retrieve important administrative, financial and legal information. Such a situation undermines the accountability of the state and endangers the rights of the citizen.

Without a management program that controls records through the earlier phases of their lifecycle, those of archival value cannot be identified and safeguarded so that they can take their place in due course as part of the nation’s historical and cultural heritage.

The records lifecycle goes on as follows: the document is created and enters what is called the current stage. Current records are records regularly used for the conduct of the current businesses of an organization or individual. They are also known as active records. Current records are normally kept near the place of origin or the registry or records office. From the current stage the record goes on to the semi-current stage. Semi-current records are records required only infrequently in the conduct of the current business. Semi-current records will normally be maintained in a records centre pending their ultimate disposal. From semi-current phase, some records are selected as archives. Archives are records, usually but not necessarily non-current records, of enduring value selected for permanent preservation. Archives will normally be preserved in an archival institution.

The lifecycle concept has been useful in promoting a sense of order, a systematic approach, to the overall management of recorded information. However, juxtaposition of the records continuum and the lifecycle model shows that the records continuum models advantages outweighs the advantages of the lifecycle concept. Peter Marshall states that the records continuum’s primary focus is the multiple purpose of records. It aims for the development of record keeping systems that capture, manage, and maintain records with sound evidential characteristics for as long as the records are of value to the organization. It promotes the integration of record keeping into the organization’s business systems and processes.

According to McKemmish records managers and archivists are brought together under an integrated recordkeeping framework with the same goal: to guarantee the reliability, authenticity, and completeness of records. The framework provides common understanding, consistent standards, unified best practice criteria, and interdisciplinary approaches in recordkeeping and archiving processes for both paper and digital worlds. It provides sustainable recordkeeping to connect the past to the present and the present to the future. It can coherently exist in a broader dynamic, changeable context that can be influenced by legal, political, administrative, social, commercial, technological, cultural and historical variables across time and space.

The continuum purpose-oriented, systems approach to records management fundamentally changes the role of recordkeeping. Instead of being reactive, managing records after they have been created, recordkeeping becomes proactive.

Amongst the two concepts, the continuum concept is the best practice for managing both electronic and paper records when the aim is to improve responsiveness, increase efficiency, and satisfy user’s requirements. The records continuum model’s ideal integration can be viewed as a best framework for managing records in a broader context of archival science to connect the past to the present and the present to the future.

Bibliography
1 Jay Atherton, From lifecycle to continuum, Canada 1985.
2 Xiaomi An, PhD, ‘An integrated approach to records management:…’ ARMA 2003
3 Miller, The Managing of Public Sector Records, Principles &context IRMT 1999
4 Marshall, ‘Lifecycle vs. Continuum-what’s the difference?’ Information Quarterly, 16,no2, 200
5 AS 4390. Standards Australia, 1996

Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.